Rhetorical Analysis Of The Worlds Hot Spot

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Introduction to Hot Spot Analysis

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On this basis, the levels-of-analysis scheme ships between human activity and the planetary biosphere. Economic security concerns access to the resources, our previous work on regional security complex theory but also from an finance and markets necessary to sustain acceptable levels of welfare and interest in the widespread assumption that in the post-Cold War world, state power. Environmental security concerns the maintenance of the local and the planetary biosphere as the the principal organizing force at the global level. If a multisectoral tion that more than before, regions will be left to sort out their own affairs.

The present book extends this to global engagement among the great powers is matched by ever rising line of argument much further. The long period of European Sectors serve to disaggregate a whole for purposes of analysis by and Western power advantage is being steadily eroded by the diffusion of selecting some of its distinctive patterns of interaction. But items identified industrial, military, and political capability among an ever wider circle of by sectors lack the quality of independent existence. Relations of coercion states and peoples. The purpose of selecting them is simply to international subsystems to be worth studying in its own right: Why should reduce complexity to facilitate analysis. Regions are objects of by the desire to maximize utility.

Why does this type of territorial subsystem or assumptions, such as the motivation of behavior by the desire to maximize any particular instance of it come into being and sustain itself as a feature power. The military strategist looks at the systems in terms that highlight of the wider international system? He starts with advantage. In contemporary international relations theory, it is taken for ment. Each is so. For thousands of years prior to the fifteenth century, barbarian tribes looking at the whole but is seeing only one dimension of its reality. These tribes could and did The analytical method of sectors thus starts with disaggregation but move over long distances. In those times, it was not uncommon to find one must end with reassembly.

The disaggregation is performed only to achieve morning that one had a great power as a neighbor where there had been no simplification and clarity. To achieve understanding, it is necessary to neighbor before. In the traditional tion it in their scheme. The rationale itary and political sectors, provides additional justification for classical, behind classical security complex theory was that for most of the actors at state-centric security complex theory and also gives us clues about how to the unit level, military-political security falls into some in-between-sized begin thinking about security relations in other sectors.

Whether this rationale remains true within a multisectoral approach to bility logic similar to that of states and thus to find regional formations security is one of the issues we address in this book. There, in an echo of the barbarians, one might systems as objects of security analysis and offers an analytical framework expect to find system-level logic working more strongly and therefore for dealing with those systems. Also, like most other traditionalist work in expect little in the way of regional formations. Another purpose was to offset the tendency of 5. The theory was applied tional security affairs. It seems reasonable to expect this later applied to Southeast Asia Buzan Vayrynen , Wriggins bias to decline with the demise of strong bipolarity at the system level and , and Ayoob have applied versions of the theory to several the advent of a more diffuse international power structure.

But because most political and military threats travel to study the post-Cold War transformation in Europe. The most recent more easily over short distances than over long ones, insecurity is often updates to the theory have been presented in Buzan , chapter 5. International security is mostly about how al system as a whole is far from uniform. The emphasis on the relational nature Security interdependence is markedly more intense among the states inside of security is in line with some of the most important writings in security such complexes than among states outside them.

The best examples of overlay are the period of European torical relations of amity and enmity. A security complex is defined as a set colonialism in what is now the Third World and the submergence of of states whose major security perceptions and concerns are so interlinked European security dynamics by superpower rivalry after World War IL. The formative dynamics and structure of a and therefore cannot identify a local complex; one only knows what the security complex are generated by the states within that complex—by their local dynamics were before overlay. Since security complexes are durable rather than permanent features tional system, security complexes are a normal and expected feature; if of the overall anarchy, seeing them as subsystems with their own structures they are not present, one wants to know why.

At the negative end lies conflict tional system as a whole, and if so it is not a significant variable at the formation Senghaas ; Vayrynen , in which interdependence regional level , 2 the patterns of amity and enmity, and 3 the distribution arises from fear, rivalry, and mutual perceptions of threat. In the middle lie of power among the principal units. This approach potential threats but have made reassurance arrangements to reduce the allows one to analyze regional security in both static and dynamic terms. If security dilemma among them. The changes bearing on any given local security complex are usually Regional integration will eliminate a security complex with which it is numerous and continuous.

Power relativities are in constant motion, and coextensive by transforming it from an anarchic subsystem of states to a even patterns of amity and enmity shift occasionally. The key question is, single, larger actor within the system. Regional integration among some do such changes work to sustain the essential structure or do they push it members of a complex will transform the power structure of that complex. Other things nance of the status quo, internal transformation, external transformation, being equal, one should therefore expect to find them everywhere in the and overlay.

These states damentally intact. This outcome does not mean no change has taken place. The second gate, either to support or not seriously to undermine the structure. Such among the local states. This condition is called overlay, which normally i'hunge can come about as a result of regional political integration, decisive involves extensive stationing of armed forces in the area overlain by the shifts in the distribution of power, or major alternations in the'pattern of intervening great power s and is quite distinct from the normal process of amity and enmity. The addition or deletion of major states, however, is the region, where these two extremes interplapand where most of the certain to have a substantial impact on both the distribution of power and action occurs.

Once the sketched out. At the bottom end lies the domestic security environment of structure of any given complex has been identified, it can be used to narrow individual states and societies. Next come the regional security complexes. Thus relations among security complexes about policy objectives. One would expect security relations among the great powers to be intense and to penetrate in varying degrees -into the affairs of the local The classical approach to regional security analysis looks tfbr patterns of complexes. Security regions therefore had the following characteristics: constructed merely at random. These states constituted a geographically coherent grouping Proliferation Treaty members.

The pattern of security interdependence had to be deep and durable states are parts of several other regional complexes. Asia -M, a clear i. Pakistan, with Burma acting as the border with the complex in Southeast Asia, Afghanistan delineating the border with the Middle East complex, In other words, security regions were a type of international political and China looming as an intervening great power. B, C, America, and the like. A sticks to the state and privileges the political and military sectors? Will the other sectors show dynamics include the classical political-military, state-dominated model require the that are mainly global, mainly local, a mess, or what? The answers to these construction of separate frames for each sector. They offer the possibility of questions will hinge on whether the relevant units are fixed or mobile and isolating sector-specific security dynamics politico-military, economic, on whether threats and vulnerabilities are strongly shaped by distance.

If societal, and so forth , but they also present the challenge of how to units are not fixed or if threats are not shaped by distance, regionalizing reassemble the separate frames into a holistic picture and the danger that logic may be weak. In the like those in the political sector? Will environmental sectors cluster, for chapters that follow, we take the sector-by-sector approach on the grounds example, around seas the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the Black Sea, the Sea that we need to explore the as yet poorly understood security dynamics of of Japan, and so on and rivers the Nile, Euphrates, and Jordan , whereas sectors and because it seems to be the best way to set out the framework.

This should not be read as privileging the homogeneous approach over the Discovering the answers to these questions is the work of Chapters 3 heterogeneous one, as becomes apparent in Chapter 8. Each of the sector chapters contains a subsection that asks, where are Logically, there are two possible ways of opening security complex the security dynamics of this sector predominantly located, and what are theory to sectors other than the military-political and to actors other than the trends? Are they regional, global, or maybe local? Second is the process of securitization assumption that security complexes are concentrated within specific sectors itself. Facilitating conditions are sometimes clearly located on a level and and are therefore composed of specific forms of interaction among similar sometimes not.

Issues are clearly global when they have global causes and types of units e. They are local when they have local causes and effects—for example, plexes made up predominantly of states, a societal complex of various pollution of water by industrial waste or sewage discharge. Water pollution identity-based units, and the like. Heterogeneous complexes.

This approach abandons the assumption level issue in the sense we use that term here but rather a case of parallel that security complexes are locked into specific sectors. It assumes that the local issues. The difference is not whether pollution is felt locally—sea- regional logic can integrate different types of actors interacting across two level rises are too—but that one case could take place without the other.

But in principle its causes could be local, caused, for example, by energy consumption in one country. There is no reason to choose between these alternatives. In principle, both It is possible to mix levels and have, for example, local causes and are possible, and the analyst needs to determine which alternative best fits global effects the earlier example or global causes and local effects such the case under study.

This situation, however, is all about the level Heterogeneous security complexes have the advantage of linking of the issue, not necessarily of its securitization. If the Middle Eastern powers two or more states. Microregion refers to the subunit level within the boundaries of a tizations so the Middle East becomes tied together, it constitutes a regional state. The; second way in which we move beyond CSCT is by taking an More generally in this investigation, the criterion for answering the explicitly social constructivist approach to understanding the process by levels question is ultimately political: what constellation of actors forms on which issues become securitized.

CSCT addressed this issue simply in this issue. In the process of securitization, the key issue is for whom security ed by the actors and are not reflections of material conditions ; adopting the becomes a consideration in relation to whom. That approach is the age could become securitized at the global level, but the major battles will subject of Chapter 2, which makes the case for understanding security not more likely be regional. Upstream and downstream powers and other just as the use of force but as a particular type of intersubjective politics. This result is not determined purely by the identify and distinguish security actors and referent objects. The outcome that materializes is a result of politics, and our the security concept of any meaning.

Each of Chapters 3 through 7 covers one of the principal sectors that Because we opt for the homogeneous, sector-specific approach in define the attempt to construct a broader agenda for international security Chapters 3 through 7, there is a problem in pinning down the meaning of studies. In line with the scheme presented in rity agenda is within the sector, what types of actors are distinctive to the the section Levels of Analysis, we would have preferred to think of regions sector, what logic of threats and vulnerabilities operates within the sector, and units in terms appropriate to specific sectors.

Each of these chapters is a lens that isolates a cent states, but, say, in the societal sector, units might be nations and specific sector for analytical purposes and tries to uncover its distinctive regions sets of adjacent nations. The problem with this approach is that unit security dynamics. Thereby, we achieve consistency in tors is one of the main purposes of the inquiry. We do this dynamics in the five sectors align with each other but mainly in terms of not to determine or privilege the state as an actor but merely to achieve Ihe reintegration of sectors by actors in the policymaking process.

Chapter consistency in discussions. Other units exist, but only one is chosen as the 9 reflects on the approach used to pull security studies into a coherent instrument of measurement. More on critical security studies in Chapter 2. Conceptual A pparatus 2. We are aware that in some other literatures the term region has a different meaning from ours. The term was originally introduced at the subunit level. This politicized notion of the region lives on in separatist movements. Also, contemporary journals like Regional What Is Security? Politics and Policy published since , International Regional Science Review since , Journal of Regional Science since , and Regional Studies since What quality makes something a security issue in international relations?

Additionally, there is a Europe the character of security in that context is not identical to the use of the of the regions: The contemporary map of the EU is subdivided not only into states term in everyday language. Alpe-Adriatic, and the like , which in our terminology would appear as subregions Unlike soeial security, which has strong links to matters of entitlement and and transregions, respectively. Joeimiemi , Since we argue that security is security. In this context, security is about survival. We are not in this context interested in ry, and society.

The special nature of security threats justifies the use of whether the actors define themselves as a region or whether they claim that their true region is something larger or smaller. Security complexes do not require that extraordinary measures to handle them. The invocation of security has been their members think in terms of the concept security complex cf. When we consider the wider agenda, what do the terms existential threat and emergency measures mean?

Existential threat can only be understood in relation to the particular character of the referent object in question. Given the peculiar nature of this type of referent of existential threats. Collective identities naturally evolve and may also be other kinds of political entities. It is also possible to imagine change in response to internal and external developments.

Sovereignty can be existentially threatened by anything forests, lakes , to much fuzzier, larger-scale issues, such as maintenance of that questions recognition, legitimacy, or governing authority. Among the the planetary climate and biosphere within the narrow band human beings ever more interdependent and institutionalized relations characteristic of have come to consider to be normal during their few thousand years of civi- the West and increasingly of the international system as a whole , a variety lization. Underlying many of these referent objects are baseline concerns of supranational referent objects are also becoming important. The interplay among all of these factors mine the rules, norms, and institutions that constitute those regimes.

At either the macro or the micro extreme are In the economic sector, the referent objects and existential threats are some clear cases of existential threat the survival of species, the survival more difficult to pin down. Securitization can thus be seen as a more extreme version of tentially threatening. As in the political sector, supranational referent politicization. Thus, the exact definition and criteria of securitization is actions outside the normal bounds of political procedure. Securitization can stances, any issue can end up on any part of the spectrum.

In the case have to be obeyed? If by means of an argument about the priority and of issues notably the environment that have moved dramatically out of the urgency of an existential threat the securitizing actor has managed to break nonpoliticized category, we face the double question of whether they have free of procedures or rules he or she would otherwise be bound by, we are merely been politicized or have also been securitized.

This link between witnessing a case of securitization. As will be seen later, it is possible for other social thing as an existential threat to a referent object does not by itself create entities to raise an issue to the level of general consideration or even to the securitization—this is a securitizing move, but the issue is securitized only status of sanctioned urgency among themselves. Accept does not necessarily In this approach, the meaning of a concept lies in its usage and is not mean in civilized, dominance-free discussion; it only means that an order something we can define analytically or philosophically according to what always rests on coercion as well as on consent.

This is the reason we link the issue to possible had the discourse not taken the form of existential threats, point of what might seem a fairly demanding criterion: that the issue is presented as no return, and necessity. If no signs of such acceptance exist, we can talk an existential threat. If one can argue that something overflows the normal only of a securitizing move, not of an object actually being securitized. The political logic of weighing issues against each other, this must be the case distinction between a securitizing move and successful securitization is because it can upset the entire process of weighing as such: lfIf we do not important in the chapters that follow.

Still, to break the normal political rules of the game e. Doing so would undermine the logic of both widening the Sectors and Institutionalization of Security security agenda and taking a securitization approach to that agenda. It changed or been widened. What is essential is the designation of an existential securitizations: How big an impact does the securitizing move have on threat requiring emergency action or special measures and the acceptance wider patterns of relations? A securitizing move can easily upset orders of of that designation by a significant audience. There will be instances in mutual accommodation among units. Typically, the agent will override such rules, because by ized.

Constant drama does not have to be present, because it is implicitly depicting a threat the securitizing agent often says someone cannot be dealt assumed that when we talk of this typically, but not necessarily, defense with in the normal way. A successful securitization thus has three components or steps ; concepts of security and find a characteristic pattern with an inner logic. If existential threats, emergency action, and effects on interunit relations by wc place the survival of collective units and principles—the politics of breaking free of rules. In security discourse, an issue is dramatized and presented and rooted in, particular sectors although, like the state, they may also as an issue of supreme priority; thus, by labeling it as security, an agent appear in other sectors ; and 2 that the nature of survival and threat will claims a need for and a right to treat it by extraordinary means.

For the differ across different sectors and types of unit. M other words, security is a analyst to grasp this act, the task is not to assess some objective threats generic term that has a distinct meaning but varies in form. One purpose of the following what is to be considered and collectively responded to as a threat. The process of securitization is what in language theory is called a speech Securitization can be either ad hoc or institutionalized. If a given type act. It is not interesting as a sign referring to something more real; it is the of threat is persistent or recurrent, it is no surprise to find that the response utterance itself that is the act. By saying the words, something is done like and sense of urgency become institutionalized.

It works to silence opposi- security and therefore can legitimately be handled differently. When this procedure has been legitimized 11 ill ic control and constraint. Ideally, politics should be able to unfold cal proccss. Thus, although in the abstract desecuritization is Stalin or M utates mob jzed for totalgwar, much of normal p i t i e s is i ilie ideal, in specific situations one can choose securitization—only one pyshed into tj e security realm.

Where the threat profiles warrant them, one can see other types of institutionalized security structures, such I shading the essential quality of international security lakes one some as those concerned with flood control in the Netherlands. Both within and between actors, tional m ilita ry -p o litic a l understanding of that concept. But this does not Ihe extent of shared intersubjective understandings of security is one key to solve all of the problems. Commentators on security at least as far back as understanding behavior. Such rationalist universalism will easily up. A objectively and emphasize that security is determined by actors and in this foreign tank could be part of a peacekeeping force. It is not easy to judge respect is subjective. The label subjective, however, is not fully adequate.

This quality is not held in subjective and isolated minds; it percent foreigners, whereas Switzerland functions with a level of Successful securitization is not toward high or low thresholds leads to correct assessments, this disposition decided by the securitizer but by the audience of the security speech act: has real effects. And other actors need to grasp the logic this unit follows. Thus, security as with all politics ultimately rests neither with the ical fact that has consequences, because this securitization will cause the objects nor with the subjects but among the subjects cf. Arendt , actor to operate in a different mode than he or she would have otherwise.

Security is thus very much a structured field in which system will respond to a security claim. This power, however, is never absolute: No one and jeans. To study securitization is to study mar of security as such plus the particular dialects of the different sectors, the power politics of a concept. One is the social capital of the enunciator, the securitizing actor, who and, not least, under what conditions i.

The other external condition has to do with threat. It is The impossibility of applying objective standards of securityness more likely that one can conjure a security threat if certain objects can be relates to a trivial but rarely noticed feature of security arguments: They are referred to that are generally held to be threatening—be they tanks, hostile about the future, about alternative futures—always hypothetical—and Nentiments, or polluted waters. In themselves, these objects never make for about counterfactuals. Actors can choose to handle a major challenge in other ways and thus not securitize it. As analysts, we define security as we have done here not mean a study of the features of the threat itself is irrelevant.

Facilitating conditions are the conditions under which security, and that logic is what we study. Although analysts unavoidably the speech act works, in contrast to cases in which the act misfires or is play a role in the construction or deconstruction of security issues viz. Conditions for a successful speech act fall the long argument between peace research and strategic studies or the U. As a nizes that speech Bourdieu []; Butler a, b. It is, further, the because things are socially constituted. The understand the dynamics of security and thereby maneuver them. This actor commands at only one very crucial step: the performance of a politi- leads us to a stronger emphasis on collectivities and on understanding cal act in a sfeuritpmode.

In all than those propagated by elites, and the like. To be able to talk about these subsequent questions of cause-effect relationships—what are the effects of issues, one has to make basically different ontological choices than ours these security acts, who influenced decisions, and so on—we do not intend and must define some emancipatory ideal. Such an approach is therefore to give actors any defining role.

At that and focus on collectivities; cf. Chapter 9 , but the political attitude and its level, the analyst cannot and should not replace the actor. The analyst in critical security studies takes on a larger securitizing act. Onefiaf the purposes of this approach should be that burden than the analyst in our approach; he or she can brush away existing becomes possible to evaluate whether one finds good or bad to securitize security construction disclosed as arbitrary and point to some other issues a certain issue.

One rarely manages to counter a securitizing attempt by that are more important security problems. They cannot hide lations and thereby steer them into benign interactions. Much of its work, like ours, deals with the social construction of security cl. A main criterion of thing— f referent object—existentially threatened. Functional actors: actors who affect the dynamics of a sector. If ences decisions in the field of security. A polluting company, for rivalry is a facilitating condition; for successful securitizatioriljlmiddle-level example, can be a central actor in the environmental sector—it is collectivities1will! Lacking the dynamic underpinning of rivalry, their. We deal with functional actors in the sector chapters.

A hard-line liberal might say the state has no legitimate spectrum of possibilities has to be allowed. In principle, securitizing actors functions other than security; When security is expanded beyond the state, can attempt to construct anything as a referent object. In practice, however, we. At the micro end of the We acknowledge that there is some analytical truth, as well as a legitftf spectrum, individuals or small groups can seldom establish a wider security mate political position, in this tight link between state and security.

They may speak about security to and of logic of our approach forces us to reject the use of such a narrow and self- themselves, but few will listen. At the system end of the scale, problems closing definitional move. We have constructed a wider conceptual net also exist in establishing security legitimacy. For example, attempts have within which the state-centric poltiOn is a possible but not a predetermined been made to construct i l l of humankind as a security referent-pmost: outcome. Another system-scale than if it were made true by definition and would also remain open to attempt was the failed move by socialists in to mobilize in the name change. We do not say security is only about the state although there is of the international working class.

Being a middle-level, limited collectivity is insufficient for system level; therefore, we investigate the issue in each of the sector chap- achieving status as a referent object. This is probably best illustrated in the ters. As argued by ited collectivity units. We rarely see middle-fcvel security policy in this field except when aggregate categories. In the sJ defend its existence, and to take extraordinary measures protectionism and with projects like the Brandt and Palme CommisSions gseo fp?

But the because it is usually. If the normal system politics according to the rules as they port. Referent objects must establish secffe save the environment. If this idea catches on, the are not usually classed as referent objccts. In practice, security is not totally subjective. We discuss this more fully in Chapter 4. There are socially defined'limits to what can and cannot be securitized, Once this door is opened, one can see other plausible candidates for although those limits can be changed.

In the economic sector, system-level referents may be the possible future direction of security politics. In these larger patterns, more effective vehicles for security discourse than limited collectivities, desecuritization is at least as interesting as securitization, but. A similar practice could grow Critics will undoubtedly protest our abdication of the critical use of in the political sector around international society or democracy the latter objective security measures as a way to question dominant definitions cf. Our position is that McSweeney If one wants to downgrade the role of the analyst in ing actor. Other spective that there are also objective security problems to hold against states treated de Gaulle as acting on behalf o f France and held France false securitizations and the lack thereof.

How to security as a specific social category that arises out of, and is constituted in, identify the securitizing actor is in the last instance less a question of who political practice. Is it an action What one can add are arguments about the likely effects. One danger of the rather than technical, and it is between a securitizing actor and its audience phrases securitization and speech act is that too much focus can be placed in reference to something they value. Someone—some group, movement, party, or system. Only occasionally will actors such as governments or firms be able elite—acts with reference to the nation and claims to speak or act on behalf to speak successfully of security on their own behalf.

When someone acts in the Identifying actors is thus more complicated than identifying referent name of a nation, certain discursive rules are imposed on the actor, because objects. Unlike the case with the referent object, a speech act is often not fers from that appropriate to other referent objects. This is a 2 If yes, track the links and interactions from this instance—how does the matter of degree rather than necessarily a qualitative difference. Chapters 1 and 8 are aggregated, we and then see how successful they are in asserting a claim to speak for that can see the level on which the processes of securitization and the patterns higher entity.

In the sector chapters that follow, rized representatives. It may be that the security logic of tion the success or failure of the securitizing speech act. Even governments some sectors inherently inclines toward regionalization, whereas in other can fail at securitization, as happened to Britain over the Suez, the United sectors it does not. This is what we need to investigate in these chapters. States in Vietnam, and the European Communist regimes domestically in And we do so in basically the same way as is done in classical security the late s. In some cases, this will thinking into the discussion of actors and referent objects in the previous constitute most of the exercise. To map societal security around the world, section.

Is a security complex defined by actors or referent objects? In the military sector, the referent object may almost rity landscape; the answer to our earlier question is the referent objects. This is an illusion. Thus, the sector chapters will vary in terms of the weight of analysis ent objects, and they generally see threats as emanating from other referent given to the three types of security unit. In an ideal situation—perhaps in objects. There is thus a real sense in which India and Pakistan, Turkey and more complete future case studies based on this approach—-all three types the Kurds, or Chile and ITT interact.

We want to be able to grasp the connections between the ceeds in three steps: 1 Is the issue securitized successfully by any actors? This procedure was much easier in CSCT where must be instances of securitization that connect and form the complex. In security was conducted for and by India, which was also the perceived both cases, the core is obviously the articulation of threats by the major threat to Pakistan and vice versa. The argument from attribution theory actors. Unfortunately, there is little conceptual literature on threats.

If, however, one draws the map too finely, a number of We do not, however, want to tant when one is trying to look into the politics of securitizing moves— define security problems such that actors have to be the problem. Probably, whereas we in security complex analysis need to find the main patterns of they usually are. In most cases, the fact that the other is a strategic actor eignty as referent object is appealed to by other than the one official voice. Because other actors occasionally securitize other referents, such as the nation, the the other is an actor, not just a wheel in a machine, it has the potential of European Union EU , or some principles of international society. The different securitizing actors are connected by competing for the than to referent objects.

This deduction, however, is probably false. What representation of the same referent object; the different referent objects are the attribution argument implies is not that we should focus on those units unified by their mutual substitutability for each other. In ty problems is most likely also actorized. On the other hand, threats do not need to be name of what? Regional security ence to. This does not necessarily mean a countersecuritization ty complexes can be carried over into a world of multiple units.

Especially ferent purposes. We do not take the state which are immune to legal challenge. This juridical reserve area of executive power or sovereignty as representing fixed limits, but we are skeptical of individualism as is. Foucault of multiple units, which might be called postsovereign realism. The units can be []. This meaning of security evolved separately from the use of the multiple identities of individuals relativizing all units and collectivities.

This international type of security starts to spread to new referents units, instead of focusing on any such softening effects produced by overlap, we and new actors; therefore, we want to retain ,a focus on international security study how the units can continue to conduct power politics; think, for example, of because it has a distinct meaning, but we do not exclude the possibility that we will the work of Susan Strange state-firm diplomacy; and Robert Kaplan a very meet this kind of security increasingly in domestic contexts.

Each unit has a possibility of becoming 2. This argument does not imply that private issues could not in some sense be the reference for security action, but since the different units overlap and are placed political, an argument made forcefully by feminists. To claim such is a politicizing at different levels, there is no fixed line between domestic and international—what move. The concept of strong and weak states is elaborated and defined in Buzan tantly a distinction exists between individual and collective security.

This argument and rests on the degree of sociopolitical cohesion within the state, is important for the present project, because if domestic and international were which is high for strong states and low for weak ones. The concept should not be fixed, there would be a risk of generating a cozy Western view of politics: Domestic confused with the distinction between strong and weak powers, which is about their politics is normal and without security, whereas the extreme is relegated to the capabilities vis-a-vis other powers. In other parts of the world, domestic is not cozy. This fact can 4.

Baldwin is the most sophisticated and consistent attempt to define be grasped by focusing on those units and collectivities that are mobilized in such security and to structure security studies according to the idea that the purpose and contexts: These domestic security relations are interunit because in these places the task is to assist decisionmakers in correctly assessing the relative attention to devote most powerful referent objects are smaller than the state.

One can contemplate cases in which concern seems to focus on a particular 5. He has accepted the critique by Judith 9. The analyst can also intervene to countersay actors in relation to the use of Butler a, b that since the speech act needs to include an idea of—with his the word Security. There is a performative force to the speech act; and see if the issue has been securitized in this sense. A tion into the debate among observers over the appropriateness of the use of the speech act is interesting exactly because it holds the insurrecting potential to break security label.

When intervening in direct policy debates over a securitization, the the ordinary, to establish meaning that is not already within the context—it reworks mode of argumentation will typically be in terms of comparing the likely effects of or produces a context by the performative success of the act. The military sector is the one in which the process of securitization is most likely to be highly institutionalized. In the mid- s, most Western European states face little in the way of existential military threats. But they maintain substantial armed forces and often use those forces in roles that have much more to do with political and economic relations than with military ones.

The use force against them. The main exception to this rule occurs when the state itself either fails arming of the citizenry and a movement toward an ideal in which the state to take root or spirals into disintegration. Even in is one of rival warlords and gangs. The process of government is, of trasts with the situation within feudal states and most forms of classical course, about much more than the use of force. Fear responses may also work on prospective future capabilities rather by ruling elites to consolidate their domestic and international legitimacy than on present ones, as in some contemporary perceptions of China Dibb e. The amity-enmity Once military relations become securitized, this agenda is of Central Asia and Africa.

Kings and princes, empires, and cities which states interact. The military agenda then has its own distinctive logic have largely disappeared or have ceased to play a role as referent objects in and technological imperative, but it does not operate in isolation. The entire the military sector, although royal families such as those in Kuwait and interplay of military capabilities between states is deeply conditioned by Saudi Arabia still preserve some autonomy as referent objects. Private political relations. Where states have failed and primal anarchy prevails among gangs Religion remains potentially available as a referent object for military and warlords, the logic of threat perception linked to the armed capabilities securitization, but as the cases of the former Yugoslavia and the Middle of other actors works more directly.

East show, in the modern world religion is often entangled with state Israel, Iran or nation Serbia, Croatia. In the state-centric, Westphalian conception of international The national state is also vulnerable to challenges from within. The society that grew up in Europe and was transplanted to the rest of the most obvious candidates are secessionists, unionists, revolutionaries, and world, the state was conceived to be, and in some places came close to other would-be states.

These groups are asserting a claim to statehood but being, the sole repository of both the right and the capability to use force. Membership in this category is diverse. It includes in which the nation and civil society, as well as the government, played secessionist and autonomist movements Chechens, Tamils, Kurds, Karens, those roles. Although both dynastic and national states claimed exclusivity East Timorese, Quebecois, Basques, and the now successful Eritreans , as the legitimate referent object for military security, as sovereignty came unrequited nationalities spread across several states Kurds, Palestinians, to be located more broadly, the security content of the state expanded.

In many places, tension still exists The very nature of would-be states, and their position in the international between the rulers and the ruled. To invoke the the erosion of individual liberties by the state, and criminals organizing security of the EU is little different from invoking the security of European outside the state to pursue economic activities free from state regulation civilization, and to invoke the security of NATO is little different from and taxation. Both militias and mafias can serve their members as referent invoking that of the West. So far, the EU has not been significantly invoked objects for military security. And when the state fails—as in Afghanistan, in the military sector, but during the Cold War NATO was successfully Yugoslavia, several places in Africa, and, in a much milder sense, Italy— invoked as representing the military security of the West.

Again, there may be a tic security. Worth noting, although not normally an international security direct link to state security, but the call for action is made in terms of some issue, is the way intrasocietal violence has recently risen on the agenda in general principle, such as human rights, collective security, or international the West. From Russia to the United States, a sense of pervasive societal stability.

Also interesting is the United Nations which in the context of its affair, but it is placed on the security agenda for two interrelated reasons. But the image in the United States and ty and functional survival of the organization should it suffer too many much of the post-Soviet world is rather that having police would be a good PKO defeats or failures. The securitization itself has society at large as its referent object or its Securitizing Actors law-abiding part and state agents or politicians as major actors. For less institutionalized units such as nations, the rules are less esting to note. State representatives will Domestic violence and race-biased patterns of violence and prosecution are speak on behalf of their state, but as military security managers they are far from new, but what is new is that these patterns are increasingly seen by also the most likely to invoke more abstract principles balance of power active groups as a collective phenomenon.

If a wife is beaten up at home, or more collective ones civilization, NATO, nuclear nonproliferation. One cannot assume, however, that the state is always coherent. Alliances such as the North as in the case of U. In addition, the typical chies, they often share with the state relatively clear rules about who can division of armed services into distinct branches army, air force, and navy speak security on behalf of the organization. Mafias, gangs, clans, tribes, generates the much studied phenomenon of interservice rivalry in decisions and rebel or secessionist movements are all likely to have clearly defined about military procurement. Other subunits, such as the Defense, Finance, and authoritative leadership.

Outside government, one has to take into account various private-sec- Because military security generally requires a highly organized and well- tor players, most notably the firms that make up the arms industry. Many of As argued in Chapter 2, securitization is essentially an intersubjective these actors are either the agencies of force, ranging from assassins and process. The senses of threat, vulnerability, and in security are socially mercenary companies through defense bureaucracies to armies, or constructed rather than objectively present or absent.

Nevertheless, it is providers of the instruments of force, most notably the arms industry. As illustrated in purview of international relations. NATO by the diversity of the intensity of threat perceptions of the Soviet Subunits within the state are of interest in military security terms either Union e. But other Allison Governments here narrowly defined as the present holders things being equal, historical and material facilitating conditions affect the of military power are the most obvious of such actors.

Governments may processes of securitization and desecuritization in a fairly systematic way. Since Military threats and vulnerabilities have traditionally been accorded the government is he authorized securitizing actor for the state, separating primacy in thinking about national security, for several good reasons. Some nondemocratic governments may be able to Unlike some other types of threat, military ones are frequently intentional securitize their own survival directly without embarrassment. But most and directed. If they did, Western social issues decided by brute force.

Restraints on behavior in such contests European states would have worried as much about U. A number of variables other than military capability can play a and social achievements. Losing a war against a ruthless opponent can be a significant role in the establishment or not and maintenance of military catastrophe. Think, for example, of the Nazi occupation in Poland and the securitization; the principal ones are geography, history, and politics.

Soviet Union or of the Japanese occupation of China. Think of Bosnia. Geography shapes the perception and operation of military threats and Military threats threaten everything in a society, and they do so in a context vulnerabilities in two ways: through distance and terrain. Distance works in which most of the rules of civilized behavior either cease to function or on the traditional principle that military threats are more difficult to mount move sharply into the background. Great powers can bilities between any two units in an international system is a function of the generally project military power beyond their immediate neighbors and into interplay between their respective military capabilities and their degree of their regions.

In modem times, only a handful of states have developed the amity and enmity, which are the outcomes of the de securitization process. The absolute capabilities of United States now falls into the world military power class. Similarly, the size and equipment of armies shape the type of the general mle of military relations is that states are worried more about threat they pose. Large, heavy mobile forces of the type deployed by both their neighbors than about distant powers. It remains largely true for sion in a way smaller and less mobile armies do not. Countries such as Poland and the Ukraine nology, and strategy Buzan ; Buzan and Herring forthcoming The dialectic spins into the larger matter of balance of power versus band- By contrast, Japan and Britain have benefited from the logistical obstacle to wagoning and whether military security is best sought by internal balancing invasions by neighbors created by open water.

Switzerland has benefited from its mountain barriers, appeasement of, or subordination to, the main source of threat. It also Russia from its distances and climate. Israel and Kuwait, by contrast, have involves extensive debate about the nature of technology: high tech versus no strategic depth and few physical barriers to invasion. These matters are History affects military threats largely in terms of the impact of past familiar ground and do not require elaboration here. The point to make is experience on present perception. After World tion has taken root. Military capabilities, whether absolute or relative, do War I, France feared Germany even when the latter was disarmed.

Relations between Europe they can be fairly recent France and Germany. If, in addition, the people are not recognized by others as process of desecuritization even when well-established present political and fully human, they risk being treated either like domesticated animals and so military realities seem to pose no objective grounds for threat perception. Some parts of the European Political factors affect military threats in two ways: through the degree expansion into the Americas, Africa, and Australia approached this of recognition that exists between the actors and through harmonies and extreme, as did Nazi policy against Jews and Slavs during World War II.

The confrontations among unequal treatment. Ideological divisions can operate in international systems when the Regionalizing Dynamics? But one does not have to look far back in history or perhaps far ahead into the In the military sector, the end of the Cold War has caused a marked shift future to find it accepted as normal that both states and peoples should away from global-level security concerns and toward regional and local- regard each other in hierarchical terms, as superior and subordinate. A case can be made that the international system is emerging torical terms, the decades since the end of World War II represent a sharp from a long period in which the regional level of military security had been break with historical practice.

Decolonization made it necessary, at least for suppressed. Initially, this suppression took the form of European and, later, a time, to accept all states as legal equals and all peoples as equally human. Japanese and U. Especially when imperialism was formal The establishment of human rights means the human side of,this equation as opposed to when it was informal , it largely replaced regional security will probably endure, but there are real questions as to whether a number of dynamics with a system-level pattern of great-power relationships.

Some—such as al framework and in doing so freed the former colonial countries of the Haiti, Somalia, Liberia, Bangladesh, and Cambodia—-might already be Third World to begin to find their own local patterns of regional military slipping into a kind of mandate status, not as colonies but as dependents on security relations. Part of the decolonization process was the diffusion of the international community. At the Differences in status make a difference to military threats. During the Cold War, most regional security restraints on the resort to force are removed. The process of securitization dynamics could not avoid strong interactions with the superpower rivalry.

Such a romantically nomadic lifestyle is all well and good if your Sim's many former lovers can be kept at a reasonably safe distance, lest jealousy rear its vengeful head. Reach level 10 in the Music career track Symphonic branch. The role of the composer is at times simple as a dainty decrescendo and others as complex as the most bombastic finale. The composer must be well-liked by the musicians of the symphony, a master of music, and one who truly understands logic to grasp the science of sound. The arts of the masters delight Sims from every walk of life. However, for each successful artist there are dozens of has-beens and failures whose books and canvasses pain all who can see.

Your Sim can write and paint towards a lifetime of artistic success, but it won't be easy. Reach level 10 in the Law Enforcement career track Special Agent branch. The forces of justice and order need champions to foil the nefarious plans of those who would do the citizenry harm. Only Sims in peak physical condition who use logic to solve troubled situations and look smashing in evening wear need apply at the Police Department.

Being tied to a single job isn't for everyone, especially those who enjoy learning new things and finding adventure behind a new desk. Your Sim will be a jack of all trades, or at least four, by climbing halfway up the corporate ladder of four careers. Reach level 10 in the Political career track. The Leader of the Free World must be a passionate and charismatic politician who is always able to raise immense campaign funds. It is an unenviable position that must constantly adjust to unexpected problems. The world needs great leaders A life of extreme wealth is one of comfort and privilege, but also one of fulfillment.

It's important to feel the rewards from one's hard labors! If your Sim owns a fabulously furnished home and has enough money to truly live in a lap of luxury, satisfaction will be had. The carefully clasped brush of the artisan can paint images that incite the humorless to laugh and the inarticulate to eloquence. The addition of skills with the stringed guitar can make your Sim the envy of the community. Success isn't a given, but is a reward that results from ingenuity and a touch of luck. Seeking personal perfection through rigorous mental and physical training is a noble goal that guarantees a lifetime of challenge. Your Sim may one day stand on the peak of physical Sim achievement, but not without much sweat and mental strain.

The ultimate fishermen can reel in incredibly majestic fish; so large they're practically bursting out of their scales. Truly dedicated fishermen spend hours casting and re-casting until the fruits of the deep blue are caught. Your Sim can create an amazing private aquarium by catching the most magnificent fish for a private collection. While some write as a purely creative outlet, the best and most persistent writers can make quite a healthy living as authors. Royalties don't grow on trees, so your Sim must be willing to push through years of lousy checks to earn enough to live comfortably. True scholars are not satisfied with mastering a single subject, or mediocrity spread amongst a variety of topics.

There are many physical, mental, and creative pursuits from which to choose. Reach the top level of several skills to become a Renaissance Sim. Reach level 10 in the Music career track Rock branch. The path of Rock appeals to many a young Sim, but the perilous journey of sound is completed by few. Your Sim must join the music career, survive the early years of rock servitude, and master the guitar to become the greatest rock star the world has ever known. Late breaking news will frequently fall from the skies and be prime for the plucking by journalists worthy of reporting the greatest stories of the decade.

Great charisma and an epic level of literary eloquence are required to succeed in the fast-paced field of journalism. Popularity isn't just a grade school desire, but a sign that the community enjoys the friendship of your Sim. Unselfish socialization is quite the worthwhile pursuit. Know that the social landscape is also dotted with the boring and the rude, a hodge-podge of society's best and worst individuals. For family focused Sims, the joys that pitter and patter about on two legs make all the struggle and hardship of parenthood worthwhile. A house full of children can mean a tight budget, little personal time, and few luxuries, but there's always somebody to play with or something new to teach. Simoleons fuel the world and for some fiscally-minded Sims, personal happiness as well.

Scrimping and saving to live in an efficient home, working hard at work, and succeeding at lucrative personal side projects will allow your Sim to swim in the metaphorical pool of money. There is a vast array of recipes to prepare for hungry guests and famished family members. By mastering the cooking skill and perusing the bookstore for recipes, your Sim can become a walking library of culinary expertise. Reach level 10 of the Criminal career track Evil branch. Your Sim can one day become the leader of the most diabolical organization in the world. Strong evil office relationships are a must, as is possessing enough athletic ability to stop the interferences of nosy government spies.

Evil vigilance is a must! The most delicious fruits and vegetables are harvested from a perfect plant. Perfect plants grow from only the best seeds, which drop from the branches of generation spanning plants that have been well tended to and loved. Only fanatically patient outdoors men can plant such a garden. Logic and Handiness are natural bedfellows, partners of invention and discovery. Logic leads to great finds like eerie nebulas, whereas handiness unlocks interesting household improvements. These can be a part of your Sim's future, though toying with electricity is never entirely safe. Reach level 10 in the Medical career track. Your Sim must be able to make logically brilliant, split-second decisions at the operating table with only a heartbeat to spare.

Only the greatest surgeons defeat disease, and in doing so cause the viruses to truly know fear. The medical profession is only for incredibly dedicated Sims who are mentally above the rest. High quality Nectar comes with a heavy price tag, but Sims of discerning taste know that it is worth the cost. Nectar obsessed Sims seek to stock a cellar full of Nectar racks with the finest, tastiest juices infused with the sweetest fruits, and be known by friends as a true connoisseur of fine Nectar. With a thirst for knowledge and experience, explorers are always in search of their next big adventure! Though they face hardships untold and dangers unnumbered, nothing will stop explorers from traversing the deepest, darkest tombs found around the world!

Martial Arts Mastery is attained by only a dedicated few, but to become a warrior of legend respected by Sims worldwide requires skill, dedication, and fortitude. Your Sim must journey to the Academy of Shang Simla in order to train rigorously in preparation to compete in the Tournament Sparring Matches in order to earn the rank of Grand Master. On the path to Martial Arts mastery Sims must hone their bodies and minds through challenges and rigorous training. Your Sim must seek out the Academy in Shang Simla to start practicing the basic moves.

Only through hard work and dedication will your Sim sculpt the perfect body, and attain the skills necessary to rise in the ranks of Martial Arts mastery. Collectors and purveyors of the ancient arts have a keen eye for beauty, detail, and value. Relics of all kinds are of interest to them, and they actively seek out new acquisitions in tombs, markets, and dig sites to expand their collections. Only the most persistent and dedicated Sims possess a Private Museum. Sophisticated Sims who travel extensively and spend time in foreign locales become worldly and wise, but only those who work hard at earning the respect and trust of the locals will be able to acquire a coveted max level Visa in France, China, and Egypt!

Through opportunities and Adventures abroad your Sim will befriend others and become welcome wherever they go. Whether slowly crafted through the precise stroke of the brush on canvas, or captured in a moment by the eye of the camera's lens, artistic works can evoke in Sims feelings of beauty, anger, excitement, and joy. Mastering the artistic skills of Painting and Photography is a sure path to happiness for Sims who value the creative arts above all else. Sims with keen aesthetic judgment value photographs of all sizes and subjects. Whether a beautiful foreign landscape, or a candid portrait snapped on city streets, collectors have an eye for beauty and value.

A World-Class Gallery is built by Sims who want a collection rivaled by none. It is said that a jack of all trades is a master of none, but your Sim proves there can be exceptions. A brilliant artist with an eye for painting, the dexterity for sculpting, and the genius for invention, no endeavor is out of reach to such a multi-talented individual. Shun the offerings of the outside world and instead spend the days contemplating the canvas, and the nights wooing images buried deep in the stone. Why leave just one legacy, when you can leave behind dozens?

Reach level 10 in the Stylist Profession. It would be a crime if Sims with fine style and keen fashion sense were to utilize their gifts only for themselves. If your Sim yearns to make others more beautiful, to transform ugly ducklings into suave swans, then a career in the Stylist Profession is the only natural course! Trendy taste for make-up, hair styles, and fabric patterns are a must for any Sim aspiring to reach the end of the fashion runway. Save 30 Sims lives on the job in the Firefighter Profession.

The selfless act of saving another Sim's life is one of the most exhilarating and rewarding accomplishments your Sim can imagine. Only through rigorous training to bulk up the body will your Sim have the fortitude and stamina to aid others. A sharp mind, brave heart, and the ability to stay calm under pressure will be beneficial in the unending struggle of Sim versus disaster. Earn top scores for jobs in the Architectural Design Profession. Home is where the heart is, and a well designed room leaves an impression that lasts a lifetime.

Brush up your painting skills, study the latest techniques for reupholstering furniture, and familiarize yourself with popular patterns and fabrics for rugs and floor tiles. Only through an obsessive attention to detail, good taste, and learning to listen to and respect your client's wishes will your Sim be able to deliver the perfect home remodel or room addition! Create 3 Mons ters. For some Sims the ultimate pastime is the unending search for new types of life. Whether crafted through mystical, laborical, or convergent methods occult creations are wondrous achievements for Sims who prefer to dabble in the unknown. Some may call them 'monsters,' but to their creators they are just another member of the family. Reach level 10 in the Ghost Hunter Profession.

Specters, spirits, spooks, or shades, putting stray ghosts to rest is a great feeling! The complexity of interpreting paranormal patterns of activity will require dedicated study and attention to detail. Your Sim must gather experience in all things logical in order to have any chance of understanding the complexities of the spirit world. Solve 35 cases on the job in the Investigator Profession.

Late night stakeouts, dusting for prints, hacking computers, snooping for clues; the life of a private investigator is one of long hours, dangerous intrigues, and baffling mysteries. Sound logic and ample fortitude are required to excel in this fast pace world of criminal analysis. Put on your best disguise, grab your magnifying glass, and drop by the neighborhood Police Department to get started. For Sims following the path of the Pervasive Private Eye there is nothing more satisfying than putting together the clues to solve the mystery. While other Sims were learning that hard work over long hours can be turned into Simoleons, your Sim learned that borrowing without asking leads to the same result without the sweat and tears.

Whether snatched accidentally while visiting the park, or borrowed when an acquaintance wasn't looking, the value of objects gathered is in the eye of beholder. One Sims trash is another Sims treasure. And if your Sim happens to klepto real treasure, well, all the better A great director can manipulate the emotions of the audience with images and words. Any great film requires a great screenplay, so ambitious directors must hone their writing craft to learn to bring the audience to tears, joy, and heart-pounding action with her pen.

Directors that want their skill recognized by their peers can't hide in the shadows, so becoming a well-known Celebrity is a must. Elite and sophisticated, Celebrities lead a life unlike any other Sims. The road to fame isn't easy, but spreading your Sim's fame and amassing great wealth will lead to a life of luxury like none other! A true master of mixological arts knows how to combine different juice flavors with such skill that their creations both tickle the tongues and transform the minds of their Sim customers.

Acing the skill of mixology won't be easy, so your Sim will need to spend hours pouring and flipping at the bar to become a true master. No mixological genius would be complete without their own bar venue to show off their fanciful drink inventions! An accomplished Sim lover knows all the right things to say to make other Sims swoon. A true love opportunist isn't satisfied with romancing in just one location, but anywhere and everywhere! Continue to rack up those romantic successes to become a legendary master of the romantic arts.

A musical virtuoso can strum a guitar with one hand while tickling the ivories with the other. Your Sim is not satisfied with mastering just one instrument, but yearns to become an expert at them all! Hours of jamming may not make the neighbors your Sim's friend, but it is the only way to unlock his true musical potential. Many stars grace the silver screen, but few are memorable enough that their celluloid exploits will be remembered for generations. To become a true film superstar, your Sim will need to stand out from the crowd of acting wannabes. Oodles of charisma and an abundance of time in the Celebrity spotlight is the only sure path to becoming one of film's brightest stars!

You have a soft spot for animals of all shapes and sizes. To see one being mistreated, abandoned, or neglected breaks your heart. That is why you've made it a personal mission to adopt as many pets as you can to help make their world a little brighter. There is no such thing as having too many pets. The more pets you have, the happier you are. The same can be said for your pets as well. It brings you and your pets joy when another animal joins your growing herd.

Some Sims may think this is an unhealthy obsession, but to you, Sim or animal, they're all part of your growing family. You know that saying, dogs are a Sim's best friend?