Improbability Of Nature In John Stewarts

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Jon Stewart returns to TV with deep dive show

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Stewart, as an individual media critic, has also been highly critical of particular shows and networks. The first two will be the focus of this section. In , Stewart was invited on Crossfire with the network expecting him to promote his new book, but instead he ended up expressing virtually unheard of criticism about the show itself to hosts Begala and Carlson. Crossfire : Jon Stewart Interview Two main themes emerge from this interview. Moreover, Stewart expresses a strong desire for a substantive debate show, but, according to Stewart, Crossfire does not make the cut. Based on the initial questions that Carlson was able to ask Stewart, it seemed likely that the interview was going to be focused around the presidential elections.

Stewart, however, acts as what Mirjam Gollmitzer would call an adversarial guest. Stewart is trying to hold the show accountable to the public. Although he has been critiquing the news networks on The Daily Show for some time, his direct live criticism of Crossfire on Crossfire strengthened his reputation as a media critic. His criticism even contributed to the cancellation of the program itself. Thereby, these audiences engaged in a broad public discourse about politically important issues such as the… quality of political talk shows.

While doing that, they experienced themselves as an interpretive community — an experience that has become rare in the age of individualized media consumption. Baym, Geoffrey. Brewer, Paul R. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Comedy Central. February 12, October 26, July 12, August 2, April 18, Who the f k is that guy? October 22, October 28, January 9, January 28, November 4, October 12, November 1, October 11, November 3, January 21, October 29, March 3, December 8, November 6, November 10, November 12, July 16, September 9, September 12, April 20, Gollmitzer, Mirjam. Douthat, Ross. April 4, Snow, Nancy. July 23, March 4, November 20, Cramer, Jim. March 10, March 9, March 12, November 21, France, Lisa Respers.

Carlson, Tucker. March 18, RTST, Inc. Fisher, Luchina. Cohen, Richard. March 17, December 9, April 21, February 9, January 11, October 27, April 30, August 23, July 29, September 3, September 23, May 14, Shear, Michael. September 24, Gore, Al. The Assault on Reason. Penguin Books. This suggests another possibility: ammonicrinid stem might have contained muscles.

To test this hypothesis, given the well-established relationship between the skeletal microstructure and the nature of the soft tissue in modern echinoderms 30 , 31 , 32 , it is possible to reconstruct the soft tissue palaeoanatomy of ammonicrinids with microstructural characterization of their skeletons. However, diagenetic alternation commonly leads to a significant obliteration of the primary microstructural features of the echinoderm skeleton Recently, Gorzelak and Zamora 34 introduced a promising technique, i.

Here, we use this powerful method supplemented by conventional SEM observations of well preserved specimens to characterize the skeletal microstructure of Devonian Ammonicrinus. This approach not only provides insights into the skeletal microarchitecture and palaeoanatomy of these enigmatic crinoids but also for a reassessment of the previous hypotheses about the mode of life of Ammonicrinus and evolution of muscles in crinoids. Modified from ref. Among the preserved crinoid ossicles are disarticulated elements of the xenomorphic column of Ammonicrinus sulcatus Kongiel. The material includes mainly large and massive columnals with elongated Fig. Ammonicrinid columnals analysed in this study are infilled with cement that is precipitated in optical continuity to the stereom trabeculae Fig.

Thus under polarizing microscopy, the entire plate behaves as a single calcite crystal and the stereom microstructure is hardly visible Fig. EDS spot elemental analyses from selected regions revealed that the chemical composition of the stereom and cement are similar Fig. In BSE mode, the contrast between chemical composition of calcitic stereom and ferroan calcitic cement is somewhat more distinct Fig. Note that the stereom microstructure is greatly enhanced under cathodoluminescence. The contact between the stereom and cement is best revealed by cathodoluminescence CL Fig. Under CL, ammonicrinid specimens have orange luminescing stereom and nonluminescent ferroan calcite Fig. This contrast, revealed by CL, allowed the primary stereom organization of investigated specimens to be reconstructed.

The stereom in a few less recrystallized specimens was also revealed using conventional imaging in SEM Fig. Cathodoluminescence CL photomicrographs of median a-i and distal j-l columnals of Ammonicrinus. Microstructural organization of the facet surface of median ammonicrinid columnals with elongated a-d and reduced e-h lateral columnal enclosure extensions in SEM. Five types of stereom can be distinguished in median columnals Fig. The articular facet on each side of a transverse ridge is mainly constructed of fine trabeculae thickness: 2. In larger columnals, the inner, peripheral side of a well-developed facet is triangular in shape and elongated lateral columnal enclosure extensions are covered by fine 4—7.

However, the facets of smaller columnals with strongly reduced lateral columnal enclosure extensions contain only galleried stereom Fig. Fine labyrinthic stereom is also recognized near the latera in the regions of the so-called echinoid-like tubercles Figs. However, internally they are composed of porous stereom, not compact, imperforated calcite as observed in the glassy tubercles. The inner side near the axial canal also contains coarse 8. Distal columnals are made of two distinct stereom fields: the biconical zone of fine galleried stereom perpendicular to the articular facet and a much coarser galleried to rectilinear stereom radiating laterally Figs.

The galleries extending from the facet are very long, especially near the axial canal Fig. The coarse stereom perpendicular to the latera with the mean pore diameter of Among traditional proxies for identifying muslces in echinoderms, facet morphology was invoked 2 , 7 and some studies have argued that the presence of a transverse ridge in brachials is sufficient to state that articulations are muscular. Although a similar ridge occurs on ammonicrinid columnal facets, caution is needed in such interpretations because the stem of extant bourgueticrinids, which also yields synarthrially articulating column, does not possess muscles 5. It has been argued that the stereom microstructure is a much more reliable proxy for identifying the nature of the investing soft tissues than the overall morphology of the articular facet Indeed, as demonstrated by Macurda and Meyer 41 and Smith 30 , there is a strong link between skeletal microstructure and the nature of infilling soft tissues in echinoderms.

For example, fine galleried stereom is always indicative of through-going ligamentary collagenous fibers, whereas fine labyrinthic stereom is usually associated with the muscle fiber attachment. Following this approach, Lane and Macurda 42 identified muscular articulations in Pennsylvanian crinoid brachial plates. Other microstructural studies on Paleozoic crinoid stems from different clades Pisocrinus , Barycrinus , Gilbertsocrinus , Myelodactylid revealed that they are comprised of a stereom exclusively associated with collagenous ligamentation, not musculature 43 , 44 , 45 , More recently, using an extensive compilation of stereom data obtained from modern echinoderms, Clausen and Smith 32 reconstructed the soft tissue palaeoanatomy of Cambrian echinoderms.

Following the same microstructural approach, we also inferred the soft tissue palaeoanatomy of Ammonicrinus Figs. Taken from ref. Dark shaded areas correspond to the stereom fields indicative of muscles and mutable collagenous tissues MCT. The range and mean of the six stereom types of Ammonicrinus are indicated. Inner ligaments blue , outer ligaments green , muscles red. The facets of distal and median ammonicrinid columnals with short LCEE, as in the stem of modern crinoids, are made up almost entirely of galleried stereom that is indicative of collagen fibres binding adjacent columnals Fig. In many species of recent crinoids, this stereom type is characteristic for muscle attachment Fig. Only very rarely, ligaments are known to be also associated with labyrinthic stereom The fine labyrinthic stereom indicative of muscles is also present in the regions close to the so-called echinoid-like tubercles that may bear articulated spines.

This implies that the spines of Ammonicrinus could have been highly movable and were under the control of muscles. The other skeletal areas of both median and distal columnals the interior and latera are almost entirely composed of coarser, clearly structural Fig. These methods rely on the fact that the muscular articulations are taphonomically less resistant to disarticulation than exclusively ligamentary articulations.

Difference in the disarticulation style is evident in the present material. In particular, ammonicrinid columnals were found exclusively as isolated plates, whereas all other crinoids camerates and inadunates — traditionally regarding as having had exclusively ligamentary symplexial articulations between columnals, are commonly preserved as pluricolumanls, i. Thus, the observed disarticulation gradient is consistent with microstructural data suggesting the presence of muscles in some median columnals of Ammonicrinu s. The flexure of ammonicrinid stem commonly observed in complete specimens from other Devonian localities may be also indicative of muslces.

Indeed, according to Ausich and Baumiller 4 crinoids bearing muscles are expected to have post-mortem flexure, whereas crinoids bearing ligaments are normally preserved straight. Taken together, all of the traditional proxies including the morphology of the facet, the stereom microstructure and taphonomy imply the presence of muscles in some of the median ammonicrinid columnals. In Ammonicrinus sulcatus analyzed in this study, the smaller columnals of the mesistele are interconnected with longer ones, which according to the new microstructural data might have contained muscles Fig.

On the other hand, bellow-like partial opening might have been enabled by the outer MCTs which could have been stayed taut when the muscles contracted and following the relaxation of muscles, the stem could have been snapped back by its tensionally loaded ligaments. However, although this hypothesis cannot be excluded, because of the relatively small surface area of muscles compared to the area of MCTs on the remainder of the columnal facet, this remains speculative. It seems obvious that the opening of the stem would have been much more passive than closing.

The opening could have only been facilitated by water currents or slow MCTs motion. Similar situation can be observed in the arms of living crinoids, where there are only two small orally-located fields for the attachment of the adoral muscles and larger aboral ligaments holding the arms flexed aborally. Given the above, the feeding of ammonicrinids by stem-pumping mechanism 28 should be viewed with caution. It seems reasonable that the ability to rapidly enclose the ammonicrinid crown was not connected with feeding but rather with protection against external stimuli such as predators A key conclusions from the presented data is that muscles might have not been necessarily confined to the crinoid arms.

Importantly, it seems that muscular articulations must have been acquired independently in the Devonian flexible crinoid Ammonicrinus. So far, it has been widely accepted that muscles have evolved only once, during the Early Devonian 2. Among various crinoid clades, only advanced cladids and their post-Paleozoic descendants are believed to have developed muscles.

Our study shows that representatives of another crinoid clade Flexibilia might have also evolved muscles as connecting tissue between adjacent plates. The question concerning why two independent crinoid clades which diverged in the early Paleozoic utilized muscles at around the same time during the Devonian is difficult to answer. The presence of muscles certainly served a significant advantage for feeding, locomotion and predator avoidance. As highlighted above, at least in the case of ammonicrinids, the necessity to cover the tiny crown by coiling the stem and the development of spines, could be particularly linked to the increased predation pressure during the so-called Middle Paleozoic Marine Revolution MPMR 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , During this time, diversification of various groups of predators placoderms, sarcopterygian fishes, platyceratid gastropods took place, resulting in anti-predatory adaptations among benthic invertebrates 49 , 50 , The CL images were recorded with Kappa video camera.

The microstructure of the articular surface of a few well preserved median columnals was also SEM investigated. Hess, H. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part T, revised, Echinodermata 2, volume 3, Crinoidea Articulata. Paleontological Institute, The University of Kansas, Van Sant, J. Crawfordsville crinoids. In: Crawfordsville Indiana crinoid studies. Google Scholar. Ubaghs, G. Skeletal morphology of fossil crinoids. Moore, R. Ausich, W. Taphonomic method for determining muscular articulations in fossil crinoids. Palaios 8, — Grimmer, J. Fine structure of the stalk of the bourgueticrinid sea lily Democrinus conifer Echinodermata: Crinoidea.

Article Google Scholar. Seilacher, A. Crinoid anchoring strategies for soft-bottom dwelling. Palaios 20, — Donovan, S. The improbability of a muscular crinoid column. Lethaia 22, — Palaios 21, — Springer, F. Unusual forms of fossil crinoids. Krause, P. Ehrenberg, K. Paleobiologica 7, — Wolburg, J. Bau und Biologie von Ammonicrinus doliiformis sp. Zur Frage der Lebensweise der eingerollten Crinoiden. B 7, — Wanner, J. Die Krinoiden des Rheinischen Devons. Rheinische Heimatpflege 13, 27—38 Neues Jahrb. Yakovlev, N. Marine crinoids and blastoids of the Carboniferous and Permian deposits of Russia [in Russian].

Kongiel, R. Ziemi 2, 31—40 Piotrowski, A. Acta Palaeontol. In: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part T, Echinodermata 2. Haude, R. Rief, W. Crinoid assemblages in the Polish Givetian and Frasnian. Hotchkiss, F. Czech Geol. Le Menn, J. Hauser, J. Privately published by the author, Prokop, R. Ammonicrinus bulbosus sp. Revision of the flexible crinoid genus Ammonicrinus and a new hypothesis on its life mode. Ribeiro, A. Smith, A. Stereom microstructure of the echinoid test. ADS Google Scholar. Biomineralization in echinoderms. In Skeletal biomineralization: patterns, processes and evolutionary trends. Carter, J. Clausen, S. Palaeoanatomy and biological affinities of a Cambrian deuterostome Stylophora.

Nature , — Dickson, J. Gorzelak, P. Stereom microstructures of Cambrian echinoderms revealed by cathodoluminescence CL. Inferred placoderm bite marks on Devonian crinoids from Poland. Pajchlowa, M. Biuletyn Instytutu Geologicznego , — Malec, J. Narkiewicz, K.